Public Health of the Developing Country of South Africa Essay Example for Free

Public Health of the ontogenesis Country of southwest Africa actAbstractStudies and statistics perplex put the cost of one year requirement of standard essential medicines urgencyed for the treatment of help at $ 4000 to $ 6000 in ontogeny countries like South Africa. This cost puts the medicines out of the reach of about of the citizenry infected by HIV in the evolution countries. In order to plant the medicines avail fitting to every last(predicate) the needy mickle the cost should pee been at least 95 percent less. The exorbitant price is because of the cost of the patents. The drugs protected by the intellectual property rights were required to treat diseases like Tuberculosis, in addition to the treatments of HIV/AIDS. Such drugs also acceptd Hepatitis-B Vaccine. There has been a continuous reprimand by the social activists and other public health associations, of the action by the World Trade Organization in making the develop countries implement the Trade - cerebrate Aspects of noetic Property Rights (TRIPS) symmetry which deals with the trade protection of ingenious Property rights relating to the essential drugs. They progress to also been condemning the attitude of the multinational companies in indulging in extravagant vestibuleing to insist on the writ of execution of the IP rights protection which provide have the effect of enhancing their earnings by charging exorbitant prices for the drugs and for putting the essential drugs and health safeguard beyond the affordability of scores of people in the development nations including South Africa. b bely infra such circumstances the human relationship amid the governance of South Africa and the external pharmaceutic companies had not been a conducive one thanks to the implementation of the provisions of TRIPS agreement. On the decision of the South African Government to pass the Medicines and Related Substances Amendment Act in the year 1997, 39 drug companies joine d to initiate legal action against the governing. The plea of the drug companies is that the Act gave too ofttimes emancipation of action to the Health Minister and he acted beyond the legitimate interpretation of TRIPS. It was the enterprise of South Africa to invite deportment saving drugs available at affordable prices. The rural area wanted to effectively utilize the dogmatic licensing opportunities opened by TRIPS so that the prices of the drugs could be put under check. But since the action of the government be a threat to the earning capacity of the international pharmaceutical companies they went to the extent of entering into litigation with the government of South Africa. IntroductionTRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of mind Property Rights) under the authority of the WTO were founded to protect instaurationwide intellectual property rights. The agreements, governing not only more than general intellectual property rights but also those of the pharmaceutical industr y, are fairly stringent causing m all problems for developing countries especially South Africa which is creation ravaged by epidemics which includes AIDS.According to a statistical regard by coupled Nations1 20 percent of the adult population in South Africa tests positive for HIV. The impact of the disease is such that the more than half a billion children have been declared orphans. It is also reported that HIV/AIDS related diseases expect to reduce the average life expectancy in South Africa by 20 years in the year 2010. Therefore it can be inferred that the provision of treatment of HIV/AIDS in South Africa is a high priority issue2.It has been necessary for South Africa to circumvent routine of the TRIPS agreements in an effort to protect its population. AIDS is taking great toll of the surface area sledding families without parents and health care hospitals totally unable to cope. The United States currently insists on the TRIPS agreement being strictly adhered to and seems unable, or unwilling, to find a way to encourage the developing nations with this problem. There have been some efforts made to help them in this keep, for example compulsory licensing and parallel pricing and these methods will be examined in a later section.The negotiation of the TRIPS concordance has been construed as one that was forcibly introduced by the developing countries against the objection of many of the developing nations. The industrial lobbies (multinational and transnational corporations) have win over the governments of the developed countries to link the international trade with Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) so that the industrial advancement of the developing countries would be curtailed. This would automatically pr blusht imitation of technologies and augment the re devices on research and development for the developed countries. Monopoly rights granted under IPR were mainly intended to deter the developing countries from advancing on the indust rialization.Thus TRIPS Agreement and the protection of IPR have been employ to ensure the comparative advantage of the developed countries in terms of the technological development. beneath TRIPS countries like India, Brazil which manufactures generic wine wine medicines would not have the right to export such medicines with effect from 01 January 2005. This is so de transgress the fact that the importation countries do have the respective patents covering the drugs. circumstantialally the least developing countries have put a strong resistance to the requirements of TRIPS especially in the matter of granting the protection rights for the products and processes. While developing countries were required to implement the provisions deep down one year of reaching the Agreement, the developing countries were given time until the end of the year 2004. In the matter of protection of rights of pharmaceutical products the lease developing countries have been dispense withed to delay the implementation of TRIPS Agreement provisions till the year 2016.The peculiarity with the provisions of TRIPS is that it allows any country to override the patent right under accepted specific circumstances by using the compulsory licensing procedure. For instance when there is a famine of drugs or the prices of the drugs are too high to make them unaffordable the country can override the patent if the prescribed procedures are followed. This provision of TRIPS presupposes that all the countries do possess the required manufacturing facilities which enable them to use the provisions to produce generic medicines under extraordinary circumstances.But unfortunately many of the developing and least developing countries do not posses such facilities, and hence they would be left with shortage of such drugs. In addition they are also not allowed to import the generics from those countries that possess them. In any brass these countries do not have equal power and administrative c apabilities to invoke the TRIPS Agreement either due to the reason that they do not possess the know-how required to reengineer the drugs or they fear sanctions from the US and the West3. TRIPS Agreement under WTOThe TRIPS Agreement is often thought of as one of the three pillars of the WTO (World Trade Organization), trade in keens and services being the other two.4TRIPS, initially part of GATT. But becoming part of the WTO brief, was founded to ensure that protection of intellectual property rights was not, of itself, an obstruction to trade and to increase cooperation between fractions. Under the TRIPS agreement each member state has an obligation to treat all other member states equally. The WTO negotiates between members and helps them to understand and carry out the rules and regulations they have signed up to. It also back up cooperation between members and acts as a watchdog to ensure that the agreement is adhered to.Marketing rights of a patent, when first applied for, a re given for a period of 5 years or until the patent is finally approved (whichever is the shorter period) but even during this period members essential comply with the rules and regulations as set out in Articles 3 and 4.Because of the nature of the agreement especially as regards pharmaceuticals, it was decided that minimum standards could be used, the USA prefers the higher standards but accepts the minimum as the developing world does not have the capacity to work to the higher standards at the present time. Public awareness of the serious issue of AIDS and other diseases has led to the belief (by the WTO) that health must, in the final analysis, come before agreements since the spread of AIDS cannot be the sole responsibility of one country.In trying to bridge the gap between the pharmaceutical companies and the developing nations, TRIPS has endeavoured to bring the two ramps together by allowing extensions to drugs patents but has also allowed some compulsory licensing.Artic le 3(a) under the TRIPS Agreement states that treatment of all members must be equal, but Article 3(b) is a get-out clause and Article 4(b) states that all members are equal, unless an agreement was entered into before the WTO agreement. However, the Council for TRIPS must be informed of any non-observance of Article 3(a) under Article 3(b).The TRIPS Agreement ensures that members discharge their commitments to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Part of the United Nations WIPO was set up in 1974 specifically to direct international treaties and agreements. The Paris Convention on Industrial Property and the Berne Convention on Copyright, two of the major treaties have been brought under the TRIPS umbrella. The originator states that members must comply with the obligations they have towards each other and nothing must stand in the way of such obligations. However, as noted, there is a get-out clause in cases of emergency which has to be acknowledged by members to the agreements. There is also an agreement that member countries monitor each other for infringements.Most important in terms of worldwide health problems is Article 67 of TRIPS which states that developed countries must assist developing countries with the development of their intellectual property rights, it statesIn order to drive on the implementation of this Agreement developed country Members shall provide, on request and mutually agreed terms and conditions, technical and financial cooperation in favour of developing and least-developed country members Such cooperation shall include assistance in the preparation of laws and regulations on the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights as good as on the prevention of their abuse, and shall include support regarding the establishment or reinforcement of municipal offices and agencies relevant to these matters, including the training of personnel. Programmes to assist the developing nations have already been promoted and are being assisted by the WTO secretariat and WIPO. TRIPS Agreement in Relation to MedicinesSince most pharmaceutical research and development is carried out in developed countries the organisations involved feel that they should be let on protected. Most drugs cost millions and take years to test and develop before being allowed onto the market, the industry naturally want returns by way of profits on sales. AIDS medication has been a particularly important breakthrough since HIV infects an estimated 45 million persons worldwide but there are also 1.86 cardinal cases of infection with mycobacterium tuberculosis5 therefore, it is imperative that something be done to help alleviate this type of suffering which, with the ever growing number of tourists, should be the charge of not only those countries in which these epidemics are raging but every nation whose borders are open to travel from other countries.The TRIPS agreement, currently, seems to err on the side of the drugs companies, probably because they have such powerful lobbies and are part of the new world-wide elite of corporations which, according to Janet Dine, are increasingly importing their own ethics into the developing countries and realisticly taking over, creating in the process an impoverished and unhealthy nation, they, the indigenous population have to take what is offered often at less than subsistence wages and die more dependant on the corporations who have moved into their countries in search of ever increasing profits.The money the corporations make from taking over in developing countries returns, not to the people of that region, but to their own countries. With tax incentives and a population who take any work they can get to survive at the net rates offered, these Corporations appear to be fuelling a crisis in health for some of the uglyest nations in the world.6Although The TRIPS agreement does allow for compulsory licensing in an emergency, each country must fir st negotiate with rights holders and must use those drugs obtained under such a license only for the emergency period and not for any commercial gain.Specific areas, such as South Africa, are going through a health crisis which needs the drugs already available to ameliorate it, however, in spite of clause 3(b), they are acquire no further forward in their fight to help their citizens to overcome unprecedented death rates that the epidemics are producing.In spite of Articles 30/31, which allow for compulsory licensing, the poorest and least developed nations are fighting against the cost of the use of patents and the epidemics themselves. Compulsory licensing does not adequately cover the needs of such nations in sub-Saharan Africa since they do not have facilities to manufacture their own drugs.7Protection of intellectual property is not part of the culture of many countries, nevertheless, the TRIPS Agreement was signed on 15th April 1994 by 117 nations. The agreement allows intel lectual property rights to be enforced by trade sanctions8 and, although some countries were not in realized agreement, international trade is vital to their frugal growth so, however reluctantly, they signed. Inhibitors, which have done much to control AIDS in the west, cost as much as $10.000 per head annually but international trade is the life blood of developing nations therefore they had little choice but to do so.94. TRIPS and Developing CountriesIt has been observed that implementing TRIPS Agreement and recognizing IPR on pharmaceutical products and processes would result in the following problems to the developing countries10The minimum 20 years protection to the IPR would grant a virtual monopoly for a pharmaceutical company over its patented drug and the company would be able to charge exorbitant prices on the drugs without competition which in turn would keep the drug prices very high during the period of protection. It is also not possible to bring any generic equival ent into the market due to the TRIPS Agreement. This would defy the patients cheaper alternative drugs.The product and process patents provide for the protection of the product as well as the technology. Under the TRIPS Agreement the countries are given the right to make action for the protection of patent rights on drugs for a period extending up to twenty years. After the expiation of this period the countries can get the protection elongated for further periods to the processes being employed in the manufacture of the drugs. This no doubt creates a monopoly situation on the drugs.Such protection also throw the domestic pharmaceutical producers in the developing countries out of market as they have to compete with large multinational pharmaceutical manufacturers which is not possible for small producers in the developing nations who use cheaper generic alternatives. Moreover such production may not be carried out by them during the 20 year protection period.Under TRIPS Agreemen t patent rights need to be granted irrespective of the fact that the products are imported or domestically manufactured11. This implies that the transnational corporations can supply world(prenominal) markets under the monopoly of patent rights even without producing any medicines in the developing countries by simply importing them into the developing countries. There will be no period of technology or foreign direct investments into the developing countries as envisaged by the WTOHowever under Article 66 of the TRIPS the least developed countries were allowed to postpone the application of the provisions relating to the patents for a period of 10 years on specific application.125. Exceptions to the Patent Protection of Pharmaceuticals Parallel importing implying that the developing counties are allowed to import the drugs from the cheaper markets for resale in their respective countries and thereby lower the prices of drugs.Compulsory licensing under compulsory licensing schem e, the government acting through the courts of law is empowered to provide a license in favor of a third party. Such license may be granted by the government even without the prior consent of the license holder. However the compulsory licensing can be resorted to in cases of national emergencies. The license may also be compulsorily transferred to a third party in case of an extremely emergent situation or where there are circumstances implying any anti-competitive movements by the manufacturers. The compulsory licensing is resorted to by the governments to make the drugs easily available to the poor and needy people at affordable costs. It also ensures that the patent holder is provided adequate compensation for use of the patent.6. Public Health in South Africa and the repair of TRIPS AgreementThe need for cheaper drugs in South Africa can not be undermined. The impact of AIDS in the country poses the situation of an extreme emergency forcing the implementation TRIPS. The economy of South Africa is likely to get shamed by a reduction of 1 percent every year because of the work force get disintegrated. It is estimated that the life expectancy would be lowered to 50 years in 2010 from 70 years currently. These threats to the economy and population growth would as well be a threat to peace and order situations in the country of South Africa13.In this context all the problems enumerated above for the developing nations have been faced by South Africa also. In addition when the government wanted to implement the Medicines and Related Substances conceal Bill, the US Government vehemently objected to the passing of the law which allowed for parallel importing and compulsory licensing. However amidst lot of pressure on the government and the Parliament the South African government enacted the law in the year 1997.The pharmaceutical lobby backed by the transnational companies in the South Africa not only filed a suit against the promulgation of the law but also i ndulged in negotiations and threats to the government to change its stand.The pressure was intense after the year 1997 when the South African government tried to implement a number of indemnity measures to lower the prices of drugs used in public health. The SA policies have focused on such issues as mandatory generic drug substitution, restrictions on inappropriate marketing efforts, registration of generic versions of the cancer drug Paclitaxel (sold as Taxol by Bristol-Myers Squibb), parallel-imports, and compulsory licensing14.It may be noted that despite Article 31 of the TRIPS Agreement that provides for the parallel importing and compulsory licensing the transnational pharmaceutical companies have vehemently unconnected the attempts by developing countries like South Africa taking measures for implementing parallel importing and compulsory licensing as these practices would allow these countries to have their requirements of the medicines at cheaper prices which in turn wou ld affect the profits of these transnational companies15.It was after the intervention of the AIDS activists and health activists that US came to an understanding in the issue. The government of South Africa insisted that it retains all the original provisions defending its position be retained. The government also wanted to make the fullest use of compulsory licensing and parallel importing which were considered as detrimental to the interests of the American Transnational Companies16. How American Corporations Control the Business WorldA- Business lobbiesLarge and small employmentes in the United States have been nonionic into various associations, for example Business bike Tables are national Associations which include membership of the Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of all the most important trans-national companies and the National put up of Commerce includes all sizes of firms.17Round Tables have been in existence since 1972, the first was formed by forty-two of the (then ) biggest and most important U.S. companies including banks, retailers, Insurance, transport and most of the utilities companies. They were knowing to enable byplay to proceed without the destructive competitive basis of the business world. They were described asAn association of chief executive officers who examine public issues that affect the economy and develop positions which seek to reflect sound economic and social principles. the Roundtable was founded in the belief that business executives should take an increased role in the continuing debates about public policy.18The raison detre for these firms was the idea that what ever is good for business is good for the American people. They argued that, employees, purchasers, suppliers etc all have an interest in a business. These associations, they say, represent a cross section of the American public.19The idea that what is good for business is good for America is patently nonsense since most people are in fact excluded from any rights in this elite world. Employees have little or no say in the running of their firms and consumers must wages the prices asked, they do have the right not to buy which is a somewhat negative view of the process of inclusiveness.David C Korten says that most of the memberships of the Round Tables are bound to white males over the age of 50 whose salaries are enormous. They do not, as claimed, consider that what is good for business is good for America but rather endeavour to maximise their own profits and those of their shareholders by seeking to globalise in areas where they can have an almost free hand to carry out their business practices almost unhindered by the laws of any country they move into. 20Free Trade has long been an ideal of the American corporeal world which is why the Round Tables campaigned vigorously for the no.th American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA and created USA-NAFTA to front their interests, the American public, nervous at so much control in so f ew hands, have been given country-wide blanket assurances through the media. In spite of the fact that NAFTA was supposed to be a real broad church of interests it is really part of the elite Round Table Associations and has many representatives on advisory committees.The country might have been even more nervous if they had realised that at the time of the creation of these Round Tables the major companies were in fact laying aside their competitive differences to reach a consensus on issues of social and economic policy for America.21B- Influence of U.S. DemocracyJanet Dine claims no single idea is more deeply embedded in upstart culture than the belief that economic growth is the key to meeting most important human needs, including alleviating poverty and protecting the environment 22 which accounts for the superlative growth area in Washington being public relations firms. These firms work hard to protect the images of their incorporated clients against a rising tide of disc ontent which is now manifesting itself throughout the world. It could be thought that they are fighting a losing battle but the top fifty public relations firms billed over $1.7 billion dollars in 199123 which gives rise to the question, why are these PR firms so necessary?There is probably no single answer to this question but very little news is given nowadays to the public without some corporate employee looking at the effect it will have, news and advertising, according to Korten, are almost synonymous.24The political system of America has greatly changed in the post war period of more general affluence. The Democratic party has lost its basic identity the party of the people as opposed to the Republicans who have always represented business and the wealthier side of the electorate this being so the Democrats are far more dependant on the need to raise monetary resource for their electioneering and have turned to the corporations who inevitably want quid pro quo for their do nations.The mass media are heavily behind the elitist values of corporate America and the do they are able to pay to PR firms to put across an extremely one-sided policy and both the leading parties needing the financial backing of corporate America, this, says David C Korten, This is the sorry state of American democracy.25 He says that voters tend to be seen as a passive homogeneous mass of potential customers who can be told not only what to buy but also what to think and feel. What is worse, this idea of corporations is spreading, many trans-national companies rely heavily on the corporate idealism of what is good for them is good for the people they sell to. Mexico and Japan both use those same American firms to tell their populations what they should think and feel and ultimately what they should buy.C- American Democracy for SaleThe Mexican government spent upwards of $25 million and hired many of the leading Washington lobbyists to support its campaign for NAFTA. Japanese corporations were spending an estimated $100 million a year on political lobbying in the United States and another $300 million building a nationwide grassroots political lucre to influence public opinion. 26Canada, Britain and the Netherlands governments employ public relations firms in America to help them lobby and draft laws that will be favourable to the business elites in their own countries.These companies try to sell the idea of corporate libertarianism 27which is supposed to allay the fears of those who have an idea that all is not well in the corporate world of business, it is possible to claim that these corporations are in fact in the act of taking over the world and with the resources piling up behind them it could well happen in the not too distant future.The United States and Higher Levels of Protection.To add to this theme of a world take-over by corporate America, the signatories to TRIPS have begun to second thought intellectual property protection.28 This is bad news for those under-developed countries which rely on drugs from the westbound world to protect their citizens from ravaging epidemics. Rosalyn S Park saysPoor, developing nations have been most affected by the patent protection laws and resulting high drug prices, yet these nations also harbor the highest number of HIV-positive people. Consequently, the vast majority of people in need of HIV/AIDS medicines simply cannot afford them. 29In 2006 new protection laws will come into force which all members must adhere to. This will have a devastating effect on the millions of people in countries too poor to have their own drugs businesses, they will become more reliant upon those kick downstairs protected, developed countries making vast profits from the countries least able to pay.Neither the USA nor the European Union appear greatly interested in aiding those countries with the greatest needs and the least ability to pay. Admittedly concessions have been made as regards agricultural and textile concessions but this has been at the cost of allowing higher property rights which is a swings-and-round-a-bouts situation. It would be much more useful to South Africa specifically and to the developing world in general, if the costs of patented drugs could be either brought down or, as a common sense gesture of good will, eliminated completely until such time as the AIDS epidemic was at least brought down to accomplishable proportions.In spite of several different types of drugs on the market which help combat AIDS and AIDS related illnesses30 not enough are getting through to the developing countries as the multinationals are still insisting on not just the status quo as regards intellectual property rights but even higher levels.31 They appear to be driven only by the profit motive and the perceived necessity for free trade paying little concern to the suffering caused in the developing world. Nor are they taking a long term view, highly contagious diseases are ri fe in the developing world, therefore, with the modern freedom of travel, no country can ever be safe from the same epidemics. Even with modern drugs to combat them, new strains will develop, new drugs will have to be found and costs will escalate.Drugs now exist which allow people with AIDS to live a reasonably normal life including returning to work, it would in fact be in the interests of the drugs companies to allow South Africa to use them, dead people have no use for drugs nor anything else that the multi-nationals may wish well to sell them. ConclusionThe TRIPS Agreement was a milestone in patent protection of intellectual property rights and was considered to be a financial safeguard for research investment, however, it also had the effect of pricing some pharmaceuticals out of the reach of many nations most in need of the most recently patented medicines. Before the TRIPS agreement, governments had been able to make compulsory licence orders to produce drugs at lower price s in their own countries, after the agreement, although still possible, it is much more difficult and thus more difficult to protect their citizens from the epidemics which are wreaking havoc in their countries.It is important to protect intellectual property rights but it is far more important to protect peoples lives but the balance currentlppears to be largely towards the greater protection of pharmaceutical industries.TRIPS allows compulsory licensing and parallel pricing but underdeveloped countries such as South Africa are being prevented from using them because of the threat of trade sanctions and trade is vital to their economies.It is necessary to protect peoples work and investment and research must be encouraged especially into life-threatening diseases. Corporations who invest time and money into producing drugs to cope with these scourges should reap the rewards of their labour. However, many drugs companies are seeing such enormous returns on their investments that con cessions should be made to underdeveloped countries which so desperately need the medications produced by these huge giants of industry. In spite of concessions in the TRIPS agreement, corporations do appear to be protected at the expense of peoples lives.Public health should be and is a priority in the west where governments can afford to buy the health of their citizens. Unfortunately, this is not the case in the poorer, less developed countries where governments are struggling to find ways to access drugs and yet to maintain a healthy trading relationship with the countries which hold the patents to these drugs.Good health is the basic right of every citizen of every country wherever possible. More goodwill is necessary on the part of the western world and America in particular to allow compulsory licensing and parallel pricing to be used without the threat of trade sanctions. Epidemics do not respect borders, they can be carried by people to all corners the world, what was a thi rd world problem yesterday is our problem today, world health is an issue that no country can ignore therefore although corporations must be allowed fair returns on their investments it must not be at the expense of world health.It is rather apparent that TRIPS Agreement has not taken into account the public health needs of the developing nations while formulating the clauses relating to the protection of IPR in respect of pharmaceutical needs. The Agreement has not specified any particular obligations towards those governments granting the IPR for pharmaceutical products. The Agreement has also not considered the need for public health in the developing countries and grossly ignore the interests of the patients of these countries.There are a number of factors that the developing countries have to take into account including the implication of the TRIPS Agreement and the patent protection under the Agreement in the provision of medical facilities and adequate public health to the people of the respective developing countries. At the end of the day it must be recognized that the poorer residents of the worlds least affluent nations cannot pay even the marginal cost of drugs that might save their lives or permit them to become productive workers32.BibliographyConceicao Soares (2007)The HIV/AIDS crisis and corporate moral responsibility in the light of the Levinasian notions of proximity and the Third Business morals A European Review Vol. 16 No 3 p 280David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan yield Ltd. London, p.144Duane Nash, VI, Foreign International Law South Africas Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997 15 Berkeley Tech. L J. 485(lexis) fact Sheet Developing Countries variety Periodshttp//www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/factsheet_pharm04_e.htmpharmsandags p1F.M. Scherer and Jayashree Watal Post-Trips Options for Access to Patented Medicines in Developing Nations Journal of International Economic Law (200 2) p 939Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.157J H Reichman, The TRIPS Agreement Comes of geezerhood Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries? P.6John A. Harrelson, IV. Note Trips, Pharmaceutical Patents, and the HIV/AIDS Crisis Finding the Proper correspondence Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion 7 Wid. L. Symp. J . 175(lexis)Kara M. Bombach The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPS http//academic.udayton.edu/health/06world/africa01.htm p1Lisa Foreman (2007)Trade Rules, Intellectual Property and the Right to Health Comparative Program in Health and Society Munk Centre for International Studies University of Toronto Ethics International Affairs Vol. 21 No3 p 342Louise Sylvan TRIPS Protecting Intellectual Property or Putting Profits Before People Online Opinionhttp//www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1968 p1Medecins sans Frontieres (1999) Access to HIV/AIDS medicines in Thailand, Medecins sans Frontieres Report to the National AIDS Committee of Thailand, August 1999, MSF website, www.accessmed-msf.org/msf/accessmed/accessmed.nsf/html/4DTS2? Open Document.p1N.B. Zaveri (1999) Success often comes to those who dare and act, paper presented at Brainstorming Workshop on WTO Agreements and Peoples Concerns, New Delhi, Oct/Nov 1999 p1Patric Bond US Policy toward South Africa and Access to Pharmaceutical Drugs Alternative nurture and Development Centre http//www.aidc.org.za/?q=book/view/156 p1Ross Brennan and Paul Baines (2005) Is there a morally right price for anti-retroviral drugs in the developing world Business Ethics A European Review Vol. 15 No 1 p32Rosalyn S Park, The International Drug Industry What the future(a) Holds for South Africas HIV/AIDS Patients, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, p.3Z. Mirza (1999) WTO/TRIPS, pharmaceuticals and health impacts and strategies, The Networks Drug Bulletin, Sept-Dec 1999, Vol. 8, No. 5/6, Ass ociation for Rational Use of Medication in Pakistan p 271 United Nations (2004) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva United Nations2 Ross Brennan and Paul Baines (2005) Is there a morally right price for anti-retroviral drugs in the developing world Business Ethics A European Review Vol. 15 No 1 p 323 Conceicao Soares (2007)The HIV/AIDS crisis and corporate moral responsibility in the light of the Levinasian notions of proximity and the Third Business Ethics A European Review Vol. 16 No 3 p 2804 www.wto.org (Frequently asked questions about TRIPS in the WTO).5 Duane Nash, VI, Foreigh International Law South Africas Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997 15 Berkeley Tech. L J. 485(lexis)6 Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.1577 John A. Harrelson, IV. Note Trips, Pharmaceutical Patents, and the HIV/AIDS Crisis Finding the Proper Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion 7 Wid. L. Symp. J . 175(lexis)8 Ibid9 Ibid10 Z. Mirza (1999) WTO/TRIPS, pharmaceuticals and health impacts and strategies, The Networks Drug Bulletin, Sept-Dec 1999, Vol. 8, No. 5/6, Association for Rational Use of Medication in Pakistan p 2711 Medecins sans Frontieres (1999) Access to HIV/AIDS medicines in Thailand, Medecins sans Frontieres Report to the National AIDS Committee of Thailand, August 1999, MSF website, www.accessmed-msf.org/msf/accessmed/accessmed.nsf/html/4DTS2? Open Document. p112 Fact Sheet Developing Countries Transition Periodshttp//www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/factsheet_pharm04_e.htmpharmsandags p113 Kara M. Bombach The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPShttp//academic.udayton.edu/health/06world/africa01.htm p114 Patric Bond US Policy toward South Africa and Access to Pharmaceutical Drugs Alternative Information and Development Centre http//www.aidc.org.za/?q=book/view/156 p115 Louise Sylvan TRIPS Protecting Intellectual Propert y or Putting Profits Before People Online Opinionhttp//www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1968 p116 N.B. Zaveri (1999) Success often comes to those who dare and act, paper presented at Brainstorming Workshop on WTO Agreements and Peoples Concerns, New Delhi, Oct/Nov 1999 p117 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.14418 Ibid19 Ibid20 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.14421 Ibid22 Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.15623 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.14624 Ibid25 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.14726 Ibid27 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London,pp.147-14828 Rosalyn S Park, The International Drugs Industry What the Future Holds for South Africas HIV/AIDS Patients, Minnesota Jo urnal of Global Trade, 2002.p.129 Ibid30 Rosalyn S Park, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, 2000, p.231 J H Reichman, The TRIPS Agreement Comes of Age Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries? P.632 F.M. Scherer and Jayashree Watal Post-Trips Options for Access to Patented Medicines in Developing NationsJournal of International Economic Law (2002) p 939

P&G Japan Essay Example for Free

PG Japan EssaySlow, conformist and risk averse stretch, innovation and speed Leadership novelty Team implemented a global rollout of Dryel and Swiffer Impact 18 months after entering the first test market they were on sales in US, Europe, Latin America and Asia Processes Performance-based component of compensation add-ond from traditional range of 20% to 80%. Extended the reach of stock options to virtually all employees Integrated trade planning process where all budget elements of the operating plan could be reviewed and approved together StructurePrimary profit responsibility shifted from PGs four regional organisation to seven GBUs that would now manage ware development, manufacturing and marketing of their respective categories worldwide Charged with standardising manufacturing processes, simplifying grunge portfolios and coordinating marketing activities Eliminate bureaucracy and increase accountability Committee responsibilities were transferred to individuals Activitie s such as accounting, human re denotations, payroll and much of IT were coordinated through a global business service unit cash advance form Ethnocentric/Polycentric- Regiocentric Geocentric SK-II within PG this high-end product had little visibility outside Japan Because Nipponese women had by far the highest use of beauty financial aid products in the world, it was natural that the global beauty address category focussing started to regard Max Factor Japan as a potential source of innovation Working with RD labs in Cincinatti and the UK, several Japanese technologists participated on a global squad that developed a new product involving a long-lasting color base and renewable moisturising second coat LipfinityJapanese innovations were than transferred worldwide, as Lipfinity rolled out in Europe and the US within six months of the Japanese launch Implementation of O2005 in July 1999 half the top 30 managers and a third of the top 3000 were new to their jobs capabilities do not reside in management Global product development process Technology team assembled at an RD facility in Cincinnati, drawing the most qualified technologists from its PG labs worldwide US-based marketing team and Japanese team had the same task Japanese team came up with SK-IIIn the end, each market ended up with a distinct product built on a common technology platform. Marketing expertise was also shared, allowing the organisation to exploit local learning Decisions Japanese Opportunity Tapping into PGs extended technological resources extend the SK-II line beyond its traditional product offerings Although would take a considerable amount of time and effort, it would exploit internal capabilities and external brand image Product innovation and superior in-store service competitive advantage in JapanChina Operating since 1988 only Entrepreneurial beauty care manager in China Some were worried that SK-II would be a distraction to PGs strategy of becoming a mainstream Ch inese company and to its competitive closing of entering 600 Chinese cities ahead of competitors Targeting an elite consumer group with a niche product was not in keeping with the objective of reaching the 1. 2 gazillion population with laundry, hair care, oral care, diapers and other basics Europe De Cesare new the European market wellWithout any real brand awareness or heritage, would SK-IIs mystique transfer to a Western market Organisational constraint De Cesare recognised that his decision needed to comply with the organisational reality in which it would be implemented Jager openly questioned how well some of the products in the beauty care business fit in the PG portfolio the fashion-linked and promotion-driven sales models neither played well to PGs stack it high, wander it cheap marketing skills nor exploited its superior technologies From a local to a global focus

Conservatism in American politics Essay Example for Free

conservativism in American politics EssayConservatism commonly emanates from the domestic policies of republican electric pigs (Maisel 84). This ideology finds reflection in pecuniary policies that support the major role of state and local governments in domestic personal business with the federal government focusing on foreign relations, national defense, and federal legislative enactments. Conservatism also means economic policies espousing minimal government interpolation in business and economic growth via supply side economics by boosting production through capital access and tax breaks. Strong superpatriotic and religious values dominate conservative policies (84).However, there are also democratic administrations with conservative policies. Ronald Reagan was a republican when he became president and considered a conservative. His fiscal policies included the largest tax cuts to boost production, reduction in government spending on domestic areas, and concentration of expenditures on national defense (Light 243). The stress on federalism and the role of the state government became stronger through community level solutions and private sector initiatives on social issues such as the drug problem (252). economical policies included loose or minimal regulation of the business sector such as removing price controls on domestically sourced oil and limiting the entree of imported automobiles from Japan to protect the local car industry (251). His administration also sought to control monetary supply to reduce inflation (250). spiritual beliefs came into play in his handling of the AIDS issue by excluding those with AIDS from mainstream society based on the premise that AIDS is a manifestation of lowly acts.George H. W. Bush was also a republican president and a conservative. As the Cold War ended, his administration faced a huge budget famine (Light 256). With limited funds and the burgeoning domestic issues, his fiscal policy focused on basic iss ues by increasing federal spending on education, health safeguard for mothers and children, and technological research. Bush signed into law a number of bills that supported civil rights with the disabilities act and environmental protection via the clean air act (285).His administration also supported federal expenditures on the countrys high right smart system and law enforcement initiatives (285). He campaigned against new taxes but failed to achieve this because of strong drive from the democrat majority in the legislature (277, 283). Bush implemented laissez faire. His administration was a key player in creating the North Atlantic Free pile Agreement that removes tariffs for goods traded by America, Canada and Mexico (285).This agreement controlled intellectual property and eased cross-country investments (285). Bill Clinton was a democrat but considered by some as a conservative because of some controversial policies. The conservative aspects of his fiscal policy included t ax cuts through the earned income tax credit that operated as a way of reducing the tax exaction for workers with below a floor amount (Light 277). The signing of the budget reconciliation law decreased the taxes paid by those with low income and down in the mouth businesses (285).He also signed NAFTA, initially negotiated by Bush (288). The non-conservative aspects of his fiscal policy included increasing taxes for wealthy citizens, budget allocation for healthcare emend and health insurance program for children, and extension of copyright regulation (285). Clintons economic policies had a tinge of conservatism with deregulation of trade (288). However, he was qualified to achieve economic growth by focusing on controlling inflation, reducing unemployment, and securing social welfare and other services (285).Conservatism emerged in his enduret ask dont tell policy that allowed entry of homo sexuals into the military as long as they do not disclose their sexual orientation (279) . This received lesser criticism from conservatives and strong criticism from the gay and civil rights movements. In contemporary administrations, the trend is towards renewed conservatism given appear conditions. The divide between the conservative republicans and non-conservative democrats is slowly diminishing (Maisel 86), with flexible administrative policies considered on an issue-to-issue basis.

Ego Theory vs Bundle Theory

Ego Theory vs Bundle TheoryDerek Parfit discusses two separate theories of individualal identity, the Ego hypothesis and the Bundle theory. The common question between these two theories is What is a person? In this paper, I pull up stakes introduce the Ego Theory and the Bundle Theory, therefore I will go over Parfits teletransportation example. I will explain what Parfit and the Ego Theorist disagree about when it comes to teletransportation. Then I will reason in order to defend the Ego Theory and explain why I feel it is more persuasive.To begin with, I will discuss the understructure of the Ego Theory. This theory defines a person as a single unified subject of experiences.In other words, this theory believes there is something in this mankind that is you and that thing is basic. Mental events exist (such as memories, sensations, emotions, desires, experiences, etc.) but ar non basic. The basis of what makes up a person is something other than those cordial events. Thi s theory states that a persons continual life is described through the purpose of a specific subject of experiences, a person is an ego (unit basic quality) that a bunch of experiences extend to.On the other hand, the Bundle Theory is very polar, it believes that we are not a finicky subject of experiences, but a bundle. The foundation of this theory is that mental events exist but they are basic. A Bundle theorist believes there is no unit that is a person that exists in the world.A person is save a bundle or collection of mental events. These bundle of ideas are attached to a person. We organize our notions about what is in the world by categorizing different things ad giving them a label. People decided to call the idea of what makes up a person a person. We give notions their meaning using language. This is pitying beings basic way of organizing and defining things in the world depending on their relation, but it is our creation. Parfit agrees with the Bundle Theory and goe s on to argue thatwe incur defined what a person is incorrectly.Parfit goes on to discuss a scenario that involves teletransportation. He discusses a device called the teletransporter, which can read the design of a persons material while destroying it, then transfer the instruction to Mars at the speed of light. The receiver reads this information creating an exact copy of your material there. Parfit argues that you will die during this process, however you will have a reverberation of yourself who will pick up where you left off with your life. The replica will be someone who will be exactly similar to you, but it will not actually be you. It will have all your attributes such as your look, personality, memories, etc. This occurrence raises questions regarding whether the replica would be the same person as you, and hence what truly makes a person what they are.Both the Ego and Bundle theories agree that you will die during this process of teletransportation and that the replic a created will not be you. They disagree why the replica will not be the same person. The Ego theory believes the replica created on Mars is not you because it is full a copy of you. No one who will exist in the future would have my ego, no one in the future will be this particular subject of experiences. In other words, no one in the future will ever be me. A replica by definition is not the same as you, its a reproduction of you. Destroying the person teletransported does not somehow make the replica of that person the same. What makes a person is their ego. A person that believes in the Ego theory would be crazy for getting in a teletransporter because it would destroy them.On the other hand, the reason the Bundle theory believes the replica created on Mars is not the same as you is because it argues there is no self, there is no such thing as a person being teletransported. at that place are only ideas and when your collection of ideas is teleported, your collection of ideas w ill disappear and a new set of ideas will appear. The replica created will have the experience of lettered what the person teletransported is like, what memories they have experienced, what emotions they process, etc. but it is not the same as actually experiencing those things. The person teletransported has memories because that person created them in a specific way. Making a replica of those memories will still not be the same as actually having those memories personally. So a person that believes in the Bundle theory would have no problem getting in the teletransporter as opposed to the Ego theory.Parfit then goes on to assert, Ordinary survival is about as bad as being destroyed and having a Replica.What Parfit is trying to say is that teletransportation is just as bad as ordinary survival. If we believe in the Ego Theory we are worried about nonsense, because the way we perceive what defines a person is incorrect. He believes wedo not understand what we are and that our conti nued cosmos should not unfeignedly matter to us. Once we understand that we are just a bundle of ideas, it should not matter whether that bundle of ideas lives or dies.In my opinion the Ego theorys farm animal of reasoning is much more persuasive. I believe there is something special that makes each and every person different, which we call the soul. Ourconsciousness is the indicator there exists a soul. We are rational beings that have a conscience which tells us right from wrong.Also, there is something that is the foundation of a person that existed before we were born and that carries on subsequently we die. We can decide whether we want to behave or act in a certain way, hence we have free will. All those things were in existence before we were born, they are installed in our genetic makeup.I believe that in order for something to exist, something else must have caused it. Our genetic make up did not just appear out of nowhere, we were created by an external force. I believ e that the soul is the basis for that existence.The soul is beyond the range of the senses of the ego, but is a part of the ego.

The Public And Private Sectors In Bhutan Economics Essay

The Public And Private Sectors In Bhutan Economics EssayThe common soldier firmament is the per centum of the preservation which runs for private profit and it is non controlled by the g all overnance where as domain sphere of influences ar that part of the thriftiness conserved with providing basic disposal go.In Bhutan, both human race and private firmament plays an central role in scotchal ontogenesis of the solid ground. Though private sector is considered as an engine of scotch yield, which contributes some(prenominal) to brass revenue enhancement, generates high meshing opportunities and contributes more towards countrys gross domestic product (GNI), and increase the stinting growth. But at the same time in the public eye(predicate) sectors in addition plays an important role in reduction of economic inequalities and public sector is an important instrument which the country can employ in preventing of monopolistic tendencies. The point of the publi c sector can be utilized to promote general upbeat of the country.Since Bhutan is landlocked country with low entrepreneurial talent callable to very upstart nature of most sectoral activities, and in that respect are certain difficulties in in beation of private and public sectors like inefficient human factors, escape of credit facilities, short-staffed infrastructural facilities, lack of technology and also lack of resources etc.While Bhutan is on the path to be a middle income country by 2020, with self-reliance economy and private sector to play the lead role and government move as facilitator and promoter and wants to achieve full- vocation by 2020 (estimated, 97.5%). Both private and public sector plays an important role in economic development of the country. Though private sector is important for economic growth but public sector is also an important instrument for economic development and social welfare. Both public and private sector get down contributed to gross domestic product (current 6.7%) which helped in increasing the government revenue and Gross domestic capital system in the economy.Private sector is the branch of an economy that is governed by an individual that does not falls under the bear control of government as are designed to earn their own benefits. The private sectors make their own choice of production for their benefits and compete with other private sectors in the economy. Wilson and Clark (1997, p.76) delimitate private sector as The part of an economy that is owned by individuals and operated for their soulfulnessal benefit. It is made up of private citizen. This statement intend that the private sector is the privately owned business where individual operate for their sole benefit and the private individual has right to determine over their production, allotment and distribution of goods and services. The private sector produces private goods and services that mostly promote the economy welfare of owners of pri vate sectors. It is every individuals views to maximize their cost and benefits through the estimate of aspiration with others. The competition and efficient utilization of resources is the guiding principle behind every private sector. Nevertheless, the private sector produces and generates majority of income in economy development which potentially contributes to the economy growth. Therefore, private sectors are sensible to refer as the engine of economic growth.Public sector on the other is a several(predicate) sector from private sector as its services are fully regulated by government. The resources in this case are publicly owned. According to Wilson Clark (1997, p.77) states, The public sector is the part of the economy that is owned by the whole society and operated for its benefit. Unlike private sectors, the costs and benefits in case of public sectors are conjointly shared by all the consumers in the economy. The comp matchlessnts of public sector greatly vary across the country. In Bhutan, public sector includes such services as the police, military, public roads, public transit, primary education and healthcare for the people.So the following paper allow for be focusing on the roles of private and public sector that play in the economic development of Bhutan, history of these deuce sectors. It also discusses some of the exponents of economic development in Bhutan followed by the contributions made by these two sectors towards GDP (GNI) and employment in Bhutan and some of the difficulties in development of private and public sector in Bhutan.History of Private and Public sectorBhutan is one of the most isolated countries since 1961, it started its first development plan by opening its door of economy to the rest of the world with the inception of first five yr plan with assistance from Government of India. With opening the economy with the rest of the world the private sector activity was only agriculture supplemented by some vernal tradi ng facilities. The economy has taken off to a high growth since 1980 and has registered a long-term average annual growth rate of 7.6% in the 26 long time after 1980. The average annual growth rate in the 1980s was 7.4% but de-accelerated to 5.9%, however, accelerated again to 7.9% in the first six years of the present decade. (Economic Development Policy of the mightinessdom of Bhutan, 2010, p.3).Today, Bhutans private sector is operating in an extensive range of activities in the country at present day. Bhutan had association the modern system of economy until at the end of self imposed policy of isolation in country since 1961. The wise monarch late king Jigme Dorji Wangchuck ended the age old policy and bought the country into the international mainstream whereby the economic liberalization is the important reform taken by the late king besides other socio-political reforms. The true modern Bhutanese economy started with inception of First flipper Year Plan (1st FYP) in 1961 .At present Bhutan is in the progress of the tenth FYP and the country has achieved so much within half a century. In modern Bhutan the public sector has contributed so much to the growth of economy since Bhutan is welfare oriented country. The commencement of 1st FYP was the first step towards transforming the rural barter economic system to modern economy. The state undertook ventures in the manufacturing and service sector there was no potential in the private sector during those days.Indicators of economic development of BhutanThere are various indicators by which economics use to see the instruction execution of the economy. In the Bhutanese context, some of the variables which are usually adopted to measure the development are listed belowGross Domestic ProductLiteracy RateMeasures of exiguityLife expectancyBalance of payment1. Gross Domestic ProductGross domestic product (GDP) defined as the total output of goods and services that are produced within the domestic territory o f a devoted country during the fiscal year. Bhutans GDP stands at Nu. 61,223.5 millions with GDP Per Capita of Nu. 89,639.1 in 2010 (Bhutan 2010, Data Sheet).The real GDP grew at an average of 9.6% over the Ninth Plan period between 2003 to 2007, showing the growth of 21.4% in 2007. GDP per capita in 2002 and 2006 estimated US$ 835 and was US$ 1,414.01. (10th Five Year Plan, 2008-2013, p.4). In 2008, the countrys per capita income was US$ 2152. (Economic Development Policy of the Kingdom of Bhutan, 2010, p.1). So it indicates that the economic development is progressing.The gross domestic product for the year between 1996 and 2005 is given in the following graph.Source Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2006One of the main indicators of economic development is Gross domestic product. It indicates that the gross domestic product in Bhutan has been increasing over the year. So it means that the economic activity in our country is increasing over the years. In the above graph, we can see that the GDP in 1996 was Nu.11405.2million and it had increased to Nu.13971.1 in the fiscal year of 1997. It counts Nu.32.178.3million and Nu.36941.6 in the year 2004 and 2005 respectively.2. Literacy rateThe literacy rate is the percentage of people who are eligible to read and publish in their everyday life. Education is one of the most essential and impressive indicators of economy development. The literacy rate in Bhutan is at 59.5% (Bhutan 2010, Data Sheet, Towards supporting evidence substructured- finale making). It indicates that Bhutan is not economically developed and shows that Bhutan is working hard on education and skilled people in developmental programmes. It is the productive and skilled labors which directly pull up the nation economy. If there is high literacy it also indicates the haughty sign of economy were skilled and knowledge of people is considered as driving multitudes for social and economic development. Therefore, higher the literacy rates punter the development condition in the economy.3. Measures of PovertyThe National Statistical Bureau determined the scantiness line as Nu.1096.94 to a soulfulness a month, of which Nu 867 is for food and the balance considered as non-food expenditure. Food poverty concerns not only the sufficiency in quantity but also the nutritional usance of food. In Bhutan poverty rate has decreased from 31.7 percent to 23.2 percent between 2004 to 2007. (Poverty Analysis, 2007).The poverty reduction is the main objective of the 10th FYP and government aims to reduce poverty to 15% by the end of 10th FYP. The recent Mid-term review reveals significant reduction in the poverty rate. The poverty data helps in planning and decision making process to develop the economy.4. Life expectancyThe life expectancy is another indicator of the economic development which shows that higher the life expectancy, better indicator of economic development. The overall life expectancy was 68.9 were for male was 68.4 and for female 69.4 as of 2010 life expectancy rate. It brings the development in health, education and other social services. So it acts as an instrument that indicates the economic development in a country. (Bhutan 2010, Data Sheet. Towards supporting evidence-based decision making).5. Balance of PaymentPositive balance of payment shows better economic development as it shows more inflow of capital, more export than the import and better competition in the international market. Bhutans balance of payment shows positive because the negative balance of payment is finance through foreign aids.Contribution of Public and Private Sector towards GDP (GNI) of BhutanThe GDP of a country is defined as the value of final goods and services produced by normal residents of a country during a fiscal year. Private sector contribution to economic growth in Bhutan is very significant. This is due to strict government control over private sector business activities, lack of access to credit, inadequate le gal theoretical account for private sector activities, limited entrepreneurial skills, and an inefficient government-controlled financial system that does not meet private sector credit needs. As also Bhutans financial system was heavily burdened with nonperforming loans on average across all financial institutions, were close to 40%. It was therefore imperative to strengthen the financial institutions in many an(prenominal) basic ways, to move toward a market-based system as distinct from a centrally administered system, to privatize financial institutions, and to establish an effective banking supervision system. The duck below shows the GDP contribution by major private and public sector.Table 1 Gross domestic capital formation in unremitting price (Million Nu.)In current prices2000200320042005200620071. Machinery and equipments3,0313,4765,0604,4321,4081,183Government973619741535893659Private2,0582,8574,3193,8985155242. Construction6,83510,66111,2729,5659,24210,671Government 2,1081,6071,8802,1682,8653,679Private4,7289,0559,3927,3976,3776,9753. Gross fixed capital formation9,86614,13716,33313,99710,65011,8554. Change in carry-354-204-4486103535. Gross domestic capital Formation9,51213,93316,28814,08310,75211,908Source National Accounts Statistics Report 2000-2007In the table above, the Gross domestic capital formation has continued to increase from 2000 onwards thereafter 2005, there seems a declining trend in the economy.Employment Contribution from both the sectorsThe employment generation by these sectors of economy is the significant contribution towards economic development .Government has launched a concerted effort to spend a penny additional 35,000 to 40,000 jobs from the priority sectors with 40-45% in rural areas. Construction sector has sedulous close to 35,000 people in the past and additional 10,000 local jobs expected in the construction sector over the next three years. The tourism sector is expected to create around 10,000 additional j obs with tourism sectors aim to increase tourist to 100,000 by 10th FYP.The current formal sector work force is around 60,000 persons (of which about 30,000 are thought to be non-nationals employed mostly in the construction activities) the creation of an additional 90,000 jobs in private sector appears as a formidable challenge. Vibrant private construction sector to create employment opportunities for this increasingly literate workforce has been recognized by the Royal government as a high priority issue and now forms a central tenet of the Ninth Five Year Plan.Table 2. Number of person employed in type enterpriseSectorNumber of persons employedGovernment49,900Public corporation10,500Private corporation8500Armed forces4900Private business line66,000Agriculture farming180,200NGO/INGO1000Total320900(Source Labor Force Survey Report, 2010)From the above table we can find that private sector offers more economic employment as compared to public sector and private sector is still wo rking for its betterment. However, Bhutan being backed-up by agriculture, many people are intermeshed in agriculture sector which also symbolized the literacy rate in Bhutan is low and the living standard of people is poor. Vibrant private business and corporations creates more employment opportunities which shows that the development progress is positive that brings better position in the economy.Difficulties in Development of Private and Public Sector in Bhutan1. Inefficient Human resources2. underdeveloped infrastructure3. monetary inadequacy4. insufficiency of market5. Lack of entrepreneurship skill1. Inefficient Human resourcesA lack of skilled Bhutanese workers or manpower and unwillingness of Bhutanese workers to undertake menial or unskilled work. Although Bhutan has made rapid advancement in the field of education and human resource development, much work remains before the nation is equipped with the human resources required to sustain the process of development. The nations skill base is extremely limited and just over one-half of the population is considered literate. As stick out less number of technically trained professionals. Thus, the lack of adequate human resource has forced our private and public sector to remain technically backward leading to very slow space of progress.2. Underdeveloped InfrastructuresThe lack of infrastructure and the insufficient capital equipments are also the main obstracles in the progress of private and public sectors in Bhutan. Moreover Bhutan has poor capital with low saving and low investment. In order to have capital formation large savings are essential and the rate of saving also depends upon the size of income of the people. Even due to inefficient labor and lack of improved technologies hinders the development of private and public sectors in Bhutan. However, the Bhutans young and unstable Himalayan mountain ranges progress very less development with heavy expenditure.3. Financial inadequacyFinancial inadequacy is also one of the most difficulties faced by both sectors. Our private and public sectors are financially constrained. The most government undertaking has to depend on the foreign aid and other donor agencies. The domestically produced revenue is not enough for all economic activities. The profit in private sector is bare minimum as the commodities are primary product dominated. Therefore, it is very difficult to engender enough revenue to upgrade the business.4. Lack of marketBhutan is landlocked country with mountainous and rugged topography most of the inhabitants are scattered. The lack of strong road network lacks a strong market base which further hinders the capital formation in the country. Moreover, with the landlocked country water transportation is absolutely not possible and most of the public and private sectors will be nearby sea level. More over demand for market shares are also low due to peoples low income and low population. Our goods and services have less competence in world market. Therefore it has been always a problem for both sector of the economy to progress.5. Lack of entrepreneurship skillThe lack of entrepreneurship big businessman is another factor that backward the economy growth. Though the entrepreneurship is regarded as the corner stone for the growth of economy, most of the public and private sectors lack fundamental spot in the development and most of Bhutanese are not risk lovers and they always look for immediate lump-sum reward. The lack of market and private comelyty also pulls back the development. While most of the business individuals lack the business skills that are fundamental in the development of private sectors.The Role of Private Sector in BhutanThe private sector produces goods and services that mostly promote the economy welfare of private sectors owners. It is every individual views to maximize their cost and benefits through the idea of competition with others. However, the private sector prod uces and generates majority of income in economy development which potentially contributes to the growth of economy. Thereby, private sectors are sensible to refer as the engine of economic growth which plays the major roles as given below1. Employment generationThe employment generation is the significant contribution from private and public sector of the economy. The development in private sector creates thousands of opportunities which help government to solve the unemployment problems. The private sectors like tourism and construction sector offers huge employment opportunities. The current employment rate is 3.7% as of 2010 (Bhutan 2010, Data sheet).2. Increase government revenueThe private sector is also considered as the basis government revenue generator. The contribution in the form of tax is also the important source of government revenue. As when more and more public sector develops, there is always explosion of country in to better state. The mode of economy transaction increases and thereby the more revenue or taxes can be generated. Therefore contribution in the form of taxes becomes the government revenue.3. Infrastructure developmentThe growth in private sector is an indicator of improvement in the infrastructural facilities in the economy. The social services like health, education, proper water supply and sanitation facilities, transportation, would come up with increase number of private sectors.Role of Public Sector in BhutanTo accelerate the rate of capital formationCapital formation is one of the most important roles of the public sector in the country. Bhutan still has lack of factors that determines the capital formation mainly due to slow development of public sector. The rate of capital formation depends upon saving and investments were Bhutan has low propensity to save and invest.Redistributing IncomeThe important role of the public sector is redistributing of income, however, in Bhutan there are many individuals who are not able to earn enough income to survive. It is notice that some members of our society who are handicapped and simply they are unavailing to work at productive position. On other hand, public sector impose the taxes to the income of those who work and result into redistributing certain part of their income to those who are unable to work. So in context to Bhutanese society, the maximum private property we own are the maximum income we have and more opportunities we have of being dependent to produce. This condition tends to make the rich become richer. However, by redistributing income, our government is trying to provide equity and justice among Bhutanese people and it try to make many other opportunities to earn equally. Redistributing of income provide public assistance to low income groups and opening many opportunities available for their survival and this help in alleviating poverty in the country. proofThe development of public sector started with commencement First Five Year Plan an d above all private sector is at emergent point in time in our country. However, our economy is young and has a future potential to become the vibrant economy. As our economy is recent phenomenon and it has experienced the achievement of planned economic development. In this paper it reveals that both sectors of the economy challenged by many removable constraints like lack of efficient human capital, market, infrastructure, financial inadequacy and in point private sector pressured with excessive regulation. So it recommended that government and private individual to invite technical expert to train our human resource and share their views and ideas, to create market for economy. By advancing loans at affordable interest rate. This will help in achieving the role private and public sector in economic development of Bhutan.To increase our private sector, the government must minimize the regulation to make efficient use of available resources in sustainable manner so that it can al so help our private individuals to make use of their full potential skills and resources for the development.Therefore, It is also recommended that government must revise the existing system of plans, policies and strategies that government must make encourage labour and taxation policies like tax holiday and incentives for labour for the developemnt of the private sector.

Model for Predicting Fatigue Life of Nanomaterials

Model for Predicting Fatigue Life of Nano genuinesIntroductionIn the past, the primary function of micro-systems advancement was to pop the question input/output (I/O) connections to and from integ pastured circuits (ICs) and to supply interconnection between the components on the system circuit card level speckle physically supporting the electronic device and protecting the assembly from the environment.In order to increment the functionality and the miniaturization of the current electronic devices, these IC devices tole localize not only incorpo enjoind much junction transistors but swallow in any case included more active and passive components on an individual crisp. This has resulted in the emerging trend of a new confluent system1Currently, there be terce main approaches to achieving these oblique systems, namely the system-on- check (SOC), system-in-package (SIP) and system on package (SOP). SOC seeks to integ stray numerous system functions on one te lam . However, this approach has numerous fundamental and economical limitations which include high fabrication costs and desegregation limits on wireless communications, which over delinquent to inherent losses of ti and coat restriction.SIP is a 3-D advancement approach, where vertical stacking of multi- micro chip modules is employed. Since all of the ICs in the stack argon still limited to CMOS IC processing, the fundamental integration limitation of the SOC still remains. SOP on the other hand, seeks to achieve a highly integrated microminiaturized system on the package exploitation te for transistor integration and package for RF, digital and optical integration1 IC packaging is one of the key enabling technologies for microprocessor performance.As performance ontogenys, technical challenges ontogeny in the argonas of effect delivery, heat removal, I/O parsimony and thermo- mechanic reliability. These are the nearly difficult challenges for improving performance and i ncreasing integration, along with decreasing manufacturing cost.Chip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but often fail by mechanisms such as bust and creep. Furthermore, driven by the need for development the system functionality and decrease the blow surface, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that integrated chip (IC) packages provide re discrepancy interconnections with I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2. Lead-based conjoin temporals read been utilize for interconnections in flip chip technology and the surface mount technology for many decades.The traditional lead-based and lead-free solder bumps bequeath not match the thermal mechanized requirement of these fine pitches interconnects. These electronic packages, even under normal operating conditions, provoke reach a temperature as high as one hundred fiftyC. Due to differences in the coefficient of thermal expans ion of the substantives in an IC package, the packages will experience signifi passelt thermal argumentations due to the mismatch, which in turn will stir lead and lead-free solder interconnections to fail prematurely.Aggarwal et al 3 had modeled the foc utilize experienced by chip to package interconnect. In his field of study, he developed interconnects with a height of 15 to 50 micrometre on different substrate using classic beam theory. sign 1 shows the schematic of his model and a thick of some of his results.Although compliant intrerconect could cut offs the tautness experienced by the interconnect, it is still in sufficient. Chng et al. 4 performed a parametric study on the bust life of a solder column for a pitch of 100micrometre using a macro-micro approach. In her do, she developed models of a solder column/bump with a pad coat of 50micrometre and highschool of 50 micrometre to 200 micrometre. Table I shows a abbreviation of some of her results.Table 1.1 Fati gue life estimation of solder columnchip oppressiveness (micrometre)250640640640 menu CTE (ppm/K)1818105solder column height (micrometre)Fatigue life estimation/cycle)5081N.A1713237100cl27276312415013431518440520074382735772It atomic number 50 be seen from Table 1.1 that the harass lives of all solder columns are extremely short. by from the 5ppm/K board where there is excellent CTE matching, the largest labour life of the solder column is only about 518 cycles. As expected, the fatigue life adjoins signifi sterntly when the board CTE decreases from 18ppm/K to 10ppm/K and as the height developments from 50micrometre to 200micrometre.This is mainly due to the large strain induced by the thermal mismatch as shown in icon 1.2.The maximum inelastic principal strain was about 0.16 which exceeds the maximum strain that the veridical can support. Although the fatigue life of the chip to package interconnection can be increases by increasing the interconnects height, it will not be able to meet the high frequency electrical requirements of the future IC where they need to be operating at a high frequencies of 10-20 GHz and a signal bandwidth of 20 Gbps,By definition, nano see-through materials are materials that pass water atom size less than 100nm and these materials are not new since nanotransparent materials keep been discovered in several naturally-occurring specimens including seashells, bone, and tooth enamel 5, 6. However, the nanocrystalline materials fall in been attracting a lot of inquiry interest due to its superior mechanic and electrical properties as compared to the coarse- scintillaed counterpart.For example, the nano-crystalline atomic number 29 has about 6 times the strength of bulk pig 7. Furthermore, the improvement in the mechanic properties due to the diminution in grain size has been well-attested. Increase in strength due to the decrease in grain-size is predicted by the Hall-Petch coitusship which has also been confirme d numerically by Swygenhoven et al 8 and was first show experimentally by Weertman 9.The implantation of nanocrystalline horseshit as interconnect materials seems to be feasible from the processing viewpoint too. Copper has been social functiond as interconnects materials since 1989 whereas nano- hair has also been widely processed using electroplating and other sober plastic deformation techniques in the past few years. For instance, Lu et al. 10 stick out inform electroplating of nano-copper with grain size less than 100 nm and electrical conductivity comparable to microcrystalline copper. Furthermore, Aggarwal et al 11 have demonstrate the feasibility of using electrolytic capacitor plating processes to deposit nanocrystalline nickel as a back-end wafer compatible process. However, there are certain challenges regarding implantation of nanocrystalline copper as interconnects materials.As discussed above, nanocrystalline copper have a high potential of being apply as the n ext generation interconnect for electronic packaging. However, it is vital to understand their material properties, deformation mechanisms and micro mental synthesiss stability. Although the increase in strength due to the Hall-Petch analogyship which has also been confirmed numerically and experimentally by Weertman 9, the improvement in the fatigue properties is not well put down and no model has been established to predict/characterize these nano materials in interconnection application conflicting results regarding the fatigue properties have also been report. Kumar et al 12 reported that for nano-crystalline and ultra-fine crystalline Ni, although there is an increase in plastic stress range and the endurance limit, the crack step-up rate also increases.However, Bansal et al. 7 reported that with decreasing grain size, the tensile stress range increases but the crack growing rate decreases substantially at the same cyclic stress intensity range. Thus, nano grammatical c onstructiond materials can potentially provide a solution for the reliability of low pitch interconnections. However, the fatigue resistance of nanostructured interconnections needs to be further investigated.Since grain boundaries in polycrystalline material increases the enumerate energy of the system as compare to perfect single crystal, it will resulted in a driving force to tighten the overall grain terminus ad quem area by increasing the average grain size. In the case of nanocrystalline materials which have a high heap fraction of grain boundaries, there is a huge driving force for grain to growth and this presented a presents a significant obstacle to the processing and implement of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applications.Millet et al 13 have shown, though a series of systematic molecular dynamics simulations, grain growth in bulk nanocrystalline copper during annealing at constant temperature of 800K can be impeded with dopants segregated in the grain boun daries regions. However, it has been notice that stress can trigger grain growth in nanocrystalline materials 14 and there is no writings available on impeding stress assisted grain growth. There is an impending need to investigate the impediment to grain growth shaked by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growthDissertation ObjectivesThe goal of present project is to develop a model for the fatigue resistance of nano-materials that have been shown to have superior fatigue resistance. Accordingly, the pursuance seek objectives are proposed.Develops a model for predicting fatigue life of nanostructured chip-to-package copper interconnectionsDevelops a fundamental understanding on the fatigue bearing of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applicationAddresses the issue on the stability of nanocrystalline materials undergoing cyclic loadingoerview of the ThesisThe thesis is organized so that past search on nanocrystalline materials forms the basis of the unders tanding and new knowledge discovered in this research. Chapter 2 reviews much of the pertinent belles-lettres regarding nanocrystalline materials, including synthesis, deformation mechanisms, and grain growth.Chapter 3 describes a detailed overview of the technical aspects of the molecular dynamics simulation method including inter-atomic potentials, time integration algorithms, the NVT NPT, and NEPT ensembles, as well as periodic demarcation conditions and neighbor lists. involve in this chapter is the algorithms for creating nanocrystallinematerials utilise in this dissertations.. Chapter 4 describes the simulation procedure designed to investigate and develop the long crack growth analysis. The results of the long crack growth analysis will be presented at the end of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents the result and discussion on mechanical carriage of single and nanocrystalline copper subjected to monotonic and cyclic loading whereas Chapter 6 presents the result and discussion on the impediment to grain growth ca apply by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growth. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for future work are presented in Chapter 5.Chapter 2This chapter offers an expanded summary of the literature published with regards to the fabrication methods, characterization, and properties of nanocrystalline materials in addition to a description of existing interconnect technology.2.1 Off-Chip interlink TechnologiesChip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but they will often failed by mechanisms such as fatigue and creep. Furthermore, driven by the need for increase the system functionality and decrease the make size, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that interconnections of integrated chip (IC) packages will have a I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2.The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) roadmap is a roadmap th at semiconductor industry closely follows closely and its projects the need for several technology generations. The package must be capable of meeting these projections in order for it to be successful. This section reviews some of the current interconnect technology.Wire bonding 15 as shown in introduce 2.1, is by and large considered as one of the roughly simple, cost-effective and flexible interconnect technology. The devices on the te die are (gold or aluminum) wire bonded to electrically connect from the chip to the wire bond pads on the periphery. However, the disadvantages of wire bonding are the slow rate, large pitch and long interconnect length and hence this will not be suitable for high I/O application.Instead of wires in the wire bonding, tape automated bonding (TAB) is an interconnect technology using a prefabricated perforated polyimide film, with copper leads between chip and substrate. The advantage of this technology is the high throughput and the high lead cou nt. However, it is limited by the high initial costs for tooling.An pick to peripheral interconnect technology is the area-array solution, as shown in skeletal frame 2.3, that access the unused area by using the area under the chip. In area-array packaging, the chip has an array of solder bumps that are joined to a substrate. Under-fill is then fills the gap between the chip and substrate to enhance mechanical adhesion. This technology gives the highest packaging complicatedness methods and best electrical characteristics of all the avaiable interconnection technology. However, not only is its initial cost is high, it requires a very demanding technology to establish and operate.With the need for higher I/O density, compliant interconnects have been developed to compensate the mechanical requirements of high performance micron sized interconnects. The basic idea is to reduce shear stress experienced by the interconnects through increasing their height or decreasing of its shear modulus (i.e. increases in their compliant) and hence the name compliant interconnects. Some of recent research in compliant interconnects include Tesseras Wide Area upended Expansion, Form Factors Wire on Wafer and Georgia Institute of Technologys Helix interconnects 17-19 as shown in envision 2.4.Although compliant interconnects can solve the problem of mechanical reliability issue, they are done at the expense of the electrical performance. Since there is a need to reduce the packages parasitic through a decrease line delays, there is a need to minimize the electrical connection length in order to increase the system working frequency. Hence, compliant interconnect may not meet the high electrical frequency requirements of future devices. get wind 2.4 (a) Wide Area plumb Expansion, (b) Wire on Wafer and (c) G-Helix 17-19Lead and lead-free solders typically fail mechanical when scaled down to less than to a pitch of 100 mm. Compliant interconnections, on the other hand, do not meet the high frequency electrical requirements. The Microsystems Packaging Research Center at Georgia institute of Technology had demonstrated the feasibility of using re-workable nanostructure interconnections. Aggarwal et al 20 had show that nanostructured nickel interconnections, through a Flip Chip test vehicle, was able to improve the mechanical reliability maculation maintaining the shortest electrical connection length. However, the main disadvantages of this method was the significant signal loss at high frequency signal of nanocrystalline nickel 21.As discussed above, nanostructure interconnects technology is the most promising interconnect technology to best meet the stringent mechanical and electrical requirement of next generation devices. However, there is a need of an switch materials and a sensible choice of materials in this case would be nanocrystalline copper for its high strength material with superior electrical conductivity.Hence, it would be beneficial to us e nanocrystalline-copper as material for the nanostructure interconnects. Due to the tendency for the grain to grow, there is a need to stabilize the grain growth in nanocrystalline copper before using it could be considered as a potential candidate for nanostructure interconnect.2.2 Nanocrystalline materialNanocrystalline materials are polycrystalline materials with an average grain size of less than 100 nm 22. everywhere the past decade , new nanocrystalline or nanostructured materials with key microstructural length scales on the order of a few tens of nanometers has been gaining a lot of interest in the material science research society.This is mainly due to its unique and superior properties, as compared to their microcrystalline counterparts which includes increased strength 22 and wear resistance 23. These unique properties are due to the large flock fraction of atoms at or near the grain boundaries. As a result, these materials have unique properties that are representativ e of both the grain boundary surface characteristics and the bulk.Recent advances in synthesis and processing methodology for producing nanocrystalline materials such as inert blow condensation 24, mechanical milling 25, 26, electro-deposition 27, and gruelling plastic deformation 28 have made it possible to produce sufficient nanocrystalline materials for small scale application.2.2.1 SynthesisInert gas condensation, the first method used to synthesis bulk nanocrystalline 29, consists of evaporating a metal inside a high-vacuum chamber and then backfilling the chamber with inert gas 30. These evaporated metal atoms would then collide with the gas atoms, causing them to lose kinetic energy and con dumbs into powder of small nano-crystals. These powders are then compacted under high pressure and vacuum into nearly fully dense nanocrystalline solids.The grain size distribution obtained from this method is usually very narrow. However, the major draws back of this method are its high porosity levels and imperfection bonding. Grain coarsening also occurs due to the high temperature during the compaction stage 31.Mechanical milling consists of heavy cyclic deformation in powders until the final composition of the powders corresponds to a certain percentages of the individual initial constituents 25, 26. A wide grain size distribution is obtained by this method. This technique is a popular method to prepare nanocrystalline materials because of its applicability to any material and simplicity. However, their main drawback includes contamination and grain coarsening during the consolidation stage.Electro-deposition consists of using electrical current to reduce cations of a desired material from a electrolyte solution and coating a conductive object on the substrate. Electro-deposition has many advantages over processing techniques and this includes its applicability to a wide variety of materials, low initial capital investment requirements and porosity-free sunk products without a need for consolidation processing 27. Furthermore, Shen et al. 32 and Lu et al.33 had recently show that the right electro-deposition condition can produce a highly twinned structure which leads to enhance ductility. The main drawback of this method is it is the difficulty to achieve high purity.Severe plastic deformation, such as high-pressure torsion, equal channel angular bulge (ECAE), continuous confined shear straining and accumulative roll-bonding, uses extreme plastic straining to produce nanocrystalline materials by mechanisms such as grain fragmentation, dynamic recovery, and nonrepresentationalal re-crystallization 34. It is the only technology that transformed conventional macro-grained metals directly into nanocrystalline materials without the need of potentially hazardous nano-sized powders. This is achieved by introducing very high shear deformations into the material under place hydrostatic pressure. Two of the most commonly used methods are hig h-pressure torsion and ECAE 35. In the study of the effect of ECAE on the microstructure of nanocrystalline copper, Dalla Torre et al 36 observed that the grains rifle more equi-axial and randomly preference as the number of passes increases, as shown in Figure 2.5Figure 2.5 Microstructure of ECAE copper subjected to (a) 1 passes (b) 2 passes (c) 4 passes (d) 8 passes (e) 12 passes and (f) 16 passes 362.2.2 Mechanical Behavior of nanocrystalline materialsDue to the small grain size and high volume fraction of grain boundaries, nanocrystalline materials exhibit significantly different properties and sort as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. The structure and mechanical style of nanocrystalline materials has been the subject of a lot of researchers interests both experimentally 37-43 and theoretically 44-50. This section reviews the principal mechanical properties and behavior of nanocrystalline materials.2.2.2.1 Strength and ductilityRecent studies of nanocrystallin e metals have shown that there is a five to ten fold increases in the strength and hardness as compared to their microcrystalline raise 7, 36, 37, 51, 52. This increase in the strength is due to the comportment of grain boundaries impeding the nucleation and movement of flutters.Since decreasing grain boundary size increases the number of barrier and the meat of applied stress necessary to move a partitioning across a grain boundary, this resulted in a much higher yield strength. The opposite word relationship between grain size and strength is characterized by the Hall-Petch relationship 53, 54 as shown in equation (2.1).Eq (2.1)In equation (2.1), s is the mechanical strength, k is a material constant and d is the average grain size. Hence, nanocrystalline materials are expected to exhibit higher strength as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 show the summary of hardness and yield strength from tensile test that are reported in the lite rature. Indeed, hardness and yield strength of copper with a grain size of 10nm (3GPa) can be one order higher than their microcrystalline counterpart. To the larger specimens.Derivation from Hall-Petch relationship begins as the grain size approaches 30nm where the stresses needed to activate the dislocation multiplication via Frank-Read sources within the grains are too high and the plastic deformation is instead accommodated by grain boundaries sliding and migration.12. Furthermore, as the grain size reduces, the volume fraction of the grain boundaries and the triple points increases.Material properties will be more representative of the grain boundary activity 64 and this will resulting the strength to be antonymly proportional to grain size instead of square roots of the grain size as predicted by Hall Petch relation 65. Further reduction in the grain size will result in grain boundaries processes controlling the plastic deformation and reverse Hall-Petch effect, where the mat erials soften, will capture place.Although sample defects had been account for the earlier experimental bill of reverse Hall-Petch effect24, Swygenhoven et al 66 and Schiotz et al 47, using molecular simulation, was able to showed that nanocrystalline copper had the highest strength (about 2.3GPa ) at a grain size of 8nm and 10-15nm several(prenominal)ly. Conrad et al 67 pointed out that below this critical grain size, the mechanisms shifted to grain boundary-mediated from dislocation-mediated plasticity and this causes the material to get under ones skin dependent on strain rate, temperature, Taylor preference factor and aim of the type of dislocation.The yield stress of nanocrystalline copper was highly sensitive to strain rate even though it is a fcc materials. The strain rate sensitivity, m, in equation 2.2 a engineering parameter which measured the dependency of the strain rate and Figure 2.8 shows a summary of m as a function of grain size for copper specimen in the lite rature 51, 68-70. Due to high localized dislocation activities at the grain boundaries which results in intensify strain rate sensitivities in nanocrystalline materials, m increases drastically when the grain size is below 0.1 mm as shown in Figure 2.8.(2.2)Room temperature strain rate sensitivity was put to dependent on dislocation activities and grain boundaries diffusion 52, 71, 72. Due to the negligible lattice diffusion at room temperature, the rate throttle process for microcrystalline copper was the gliding dislocation to cutting through forest dislocation, resulting in low strain rate sensitivities.However, due to the increasing presence of obstacles such as grain boundaries for nanocrystalline materials, the rate modification process for smaller grain size was the interaction of dislocation and the grain boundaries, which is strain rate and temperature dependence. By considering the length scale of the dislocation and grain boundaries interaction, Cheng et al 52 proposed the next model for strain rate sensitivities. (2.3)z is the distance swept by the dislocation during activation, r is the dislocation density and a, a and b are the proportional factors. With this model, they will be able to predict higher strain rate sensitivities for nanocrystalline material produced by severe plastic deformation as compared to other technique. Since the twin boundaries in nanocrystalline or ultra fine grain copper served as a barriers for dislocation motion and nucleation which led to highly localized dislocations near the twin boundaries, the strain rate sensitivity of copper with high density of coherent twin boundaries was plunge to be higher than those without any twin boundaries 33. Lastly, the increase enhanced strain rate sensitivity in nanocrystalline copper had been credited for it increases in strength and ductility. For example, Valiev et al 60 credited the enhanced strain rate sensitivity of 0.16 for the high ductility.In addition to a strong depen dency on the strain rate, strength in nanocrystalline materials was also highly dependent on the temperature. Wang et al 73 observed that the yield strength for ultra fine grain copper with a grain size of 300nm increases from approximately 370MPa to 500MPa when the temperature reduces from room temperature to 77k. The authors attributed this increase in yield strength due to the absence of additional thermal deformation processes at 77k. This is consistent with Huang et al 74 ceremonial occasion where the temperature dependence of nanocrystalline copper with an increase in hardness of nanocrystalline copper with lowering the temperature is notedDuctility is another important characteristic of nanocrystalline materials. In microcrystalline materials, a reduction in grain size will increase the ductility due to the presence of grain boundaries acting as effective barriers to the propagation of micro-cracks75. However, nanocrystalline copper showed a lower strain to failure than that of their microcrystalline counterparts and this lacks in ductility was attributed to the presence of processing defects 76.Recent advanced in processing of nanocrystalline materials offer materials with passably good ductility in additional to ultra-high strength. Lu et al 10 reported that nanocrystalline copper with minimal flaw produced via electro-deposition had an elongation to fracture of 30%. Furthermore, Youssef et al 77 observed a 15.5% elongation to failure for defect free nanocrystalline copper produced via mechanical milling. Hence, it was possible for nanocrystalline copper to be both strong and ductile if the processing artifacts are minimized.The failure are usually consists of dimples several time larger than their grain size was normally found on the failure morphology of nanocrystalline materials and Kumar et al 78 presented the following model for initiation and hence the eventual failure of nanocrystalline materials. Furthermore, the presence of shear region was found to be due to shear localization since the ratio of strain hardening rate to prevailing stress was usually small 79, 80.Figure 2.9 Schematic illustration of fracture in nanocrystalline material postulated by Kumar et al 782.2.2.2 locomoteNanocrystalline materials are expected to creep during room temperature. This is because Due to the higher fraction of grain boundaries and triple junctions, self diffusivity of nanocrystalline material had been shown to increase by an order of trinity as compared to microcrystalline copper 81. Since creep behavior was dependent on grain size and diffusivity, with creep rate increases with an increase in diffusivity or a decrease in grain size, the creep temperature for nanocrystalline copper was known to be a small fraction of melting temperature (about 0.22 of its melting points). Furthermore, since creep had always been cited as one of the reason for grain size softening in nanocrystalline materials, creeps were other important mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials that had been gaining a lot of researchers attention.Due to the high volume fraction of grain boundaries and enhanced diffusivity rateModel for Predicting Fatigue Life of NanomaterialsModel for Predicting Fatigue Life of NanomaterialsIntroductionIn the past, the primary function of micro-systems packaging was to provide input/output (I/O) connections to and from integrated circuits (ICs) and to provide interconnection between the components on the system board level while physically supporting the electronic device and protecting the assembly from the environment.In order to increase the functionality and the miniaturization of the current electronic devices, these IC devices have not only incorporated more transistors but have also included more active and passive components on an individual chip. This has resulted in the emerging trend of a new convergent system1Currently, there are three main approaches to achieving these convergent system s, namely the system-on-chip (SOC), system-in-package (SIP) and system on package (SOP). SOC seeks to integrate numerous system functions on one silicon chip. However, this approach has numerous fundamental and economical limitations which include high fabrication costs and integration limits on wireless communications, which due to inherent losses of silicon and size restriction.SIP is a 3-D packaging approach, where vertical stacking of multi-chip modules is employed. Since all of the ICs in the stack are still limited to CMOS IC processing, the fundamental integration limitation of the SOC still remains. SOP on the other hand, seeks to achieve a highly integrated microminiaturized system on the package using silicon for transistor integration and package for RF, digital and optical integration1 IC packaging is one of the key enabling technologies for microprocessor performance.As performance increases, technical challenges increase in the areas of agency delivery, heat removal, I/O density and thermo-mechanical reliability. These are the most difficult challenges for improving performance and increasing integration, along with decreasing manufacturing cost.Chip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but often fail by mechanisms such as fatigue and creep. Furthermore, driven by the need for increase the system functionality and decrease the feature size, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that integrated chip (IC) packages will have interconnections with I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2. Lead-based solder materials have been used for interconnections in flip chip technology and the surface mount technology for many decades.The traditional lead-based and lead-free solder bumps will not satisfy the thermal mechanical requirement of these fine pitches interconnects. These electronic packages, even under normal operating conditions, can reach a temperature as high as 150C. Due to differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion of the materials in an IC package, the packages will experience significant thermal strains due to the mismatch, which in turn will cause lead and lead-free solder interconnections to fail prematurely.Aggarwal et al 3 had modeled the stress experienced by chip to package interconnect. In his work, he developed interconnects with a height of 15 to 50 micrometre on different substrate using classic beam theory. Figure 1 shows the schematic of his model and a summary of some of his results.Although compliant intrerconect could reduces the stress experienced by the interconnect, it is still in sufficient. Chng et al. 4 performed a parametric study on the fatigue life of a solder column for a pitch of 100micrometre using a macro-micro approach. In her work, she developed models of a solder column/bump with a pad size of 50micrometre and senior high school of 50 micrometre to 200 micrometre. Table I shows a summary of so me of her results.Table 1.1 Fatigue life estimation of solder columnchip oppressiveness (micrometre)250640640640board CTE (ppm/K)1818105solder column height (micrometre)Fatigue life estimation/cycle)5081N.A171323710015027276312415013431518440520074382735772It can be seen from Table 1.1 that the fatigue lives of all solder columns are extremely short. obscure from the 5ppm/K board where there is excellent CTE matching, the largest fatigue life of the solder column is only about 518 cycles. As expected, the fatigue life increases significantly when the board CTE decreases from 18ppm/K to 10ppm/K and as the height increases from 50micrometre to 200micrometre.This is mainly due to the large strain induced by the thermal mismatch as shown in Figure 1.2.The maximum inelastic principal strain was about 0.16 which exceeds the maximum strain that the material can support. Although the fatigue life of the chip to package interconnection can be increases by increasing the interconnects heigh t, it will not be able to meet the high frequency electrical requirements of the future IC where they need to be operating at a high frequencies of 10-20 GHz and a signal bandwidth of 20 Gbps,By definition, nanocrystalline materials are materials that have grain size less than 100nm and these materials are not new since nanocrystalline materials have been observed in several naturally-occurring specimens including seashells, bone, and tooth enamel 5, 6. However, the nanocrystalline materials have been attracting a lot of research interest due to its superior mechanical and electrical properties as compared to the coarse-grained counterpart.For example, the nano-crystalline copper has about 6 times the strength of bulk copper 7. Furthermore, the improvement in the mechanical properties due to the reduction in grain size has been well-documented. Increase in strength due to the reduction in grain-size is predicted by the Hall-Petch relationship which has also been confirmed numericall y by Swygenhoven et al 8 and was first demonstrated experimentally by Weertman 9.The implantation of nanocrystalline copper as interconnect materials seems to be feasible from the processing viewpoint too. Copper has been used as interconnects materials since 1989 whereas nano-copper has also been widely processed using electroplating and other severe plastic deformation techniques in the past few years. For instance, Lu et al. 10 have reported electroplating of nano-copper with grain size less than 100 nm and electrical conductivity comparable to microcrystalline copper. Furthermore, Aggarwal et al 11 have demonstrated the feasibility of using electrolytic plating processes to deposit nanocrystalline nickel as a back-end wafer compatible process. However, there are certain challenges regarding implantation of nanocrystalline copper as interconnects materials.As discussed above, nanocrystalline copper have a high potential of being used as the next generation interconnect for electr onic packaging. However, it is vital to understand their material properties, deformation mechanisms and microstructures stability. Although the increase in strength due to the Hall-Petch relationship which has also been confirmed numerically and experimentally by Weertman 9, the improvement in the fatigue properties is not well documented and no model has been established to predict/characterize these nano materials in interconnection application conflicting results regarding the fatigue properties have also been reported. Kumar et al 12 reported that for nano-crystalline and ultra-fine crystalline Ni, although there is an increase in tensile stress range and the endurance limit, the crack growth rate also increases.However, Bansal et al. 7 reported that with decreasing grain size, the tensile stress range increases but the crack growth rate decreases substantially at the same cyclic stress intensity range. Thus, nanostructured materials can potentially provide a solution for the r eliability of low pitch interconnections. However, the fatigue resistance of nanostructured interconnections needs to be further investigated.Since grain boundaries in polycrystalline material increases the nub energy of the system as compare to perfect single crystal, it will resulted in a driving force to reduce the overall grain boundary area by increasing the average grain size. In the case of nanocrystalline materials which have a high volume fraction of grain boundaries, there is a huge driving force for grain to growth and this presented a presents a significant obstacle to the processing and use of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applications.Millet et al 13 have shown, though a series of systematic molecular dynamics simulations, grain growth in bulk nanocrystalline copper during annealing at constant temperature of 800K can be impeded with dopants segregated in the grain boundaries regions. However, it has been observed that stress can trigger grain growth in nano crystalline materials 14 and there is no literature available on impeding stress assisted grain growth. There is an impending need to investigate the impediment to grain growth caused by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growthDissertation ObjectivesThe goal of present project is to develop a model for the fatigue resistance of nano-materials that have been shown to have superior fatigue resistance. Accordingly, the following research objectives are proposed.Develops a model for predicting fatigue life of nanostructured chip-to-package copper interconnectionsDevelops a fundamental understanding on the fatigue behavior of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applicationAddresses the issue on the stability of nanocrystalline materials undergoing cyclic loadingOverview of the ThesisThe thesis is organized so that past research on nanocrystalline materials forms the basis of the understanding and new knowledge discovered in this research. Chapter 2 reviews much of the p ertinent literature regarding nanocrystalline materials, including synthesis, deformation mechanisms, and grain growth.Chapter 3 describes a detailed overview of the technical aspects of the molecular dynamics simulation method including inter-atomic potentials, time integration algorithms, the NVT NPT, and NEPT ensembles, as well as periodic boundary conditions and neighbor lists. accommodate in this chapter is the algorithms for creating nanocrystallinematerials used in this dissertations.. Chapter 4 describes the simulation procedure designed to investigate and develop the long crack growth analysis. The results of the long crack growth analysis will be presented at the end of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents the result and discussion on mechanical behavior of single and nanocrystalline copper subjected to monotonic and cyclic loading whereas Chapter 6 presents the result and discussion on the impediment to grain growth caused by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain grow th. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for future work are presented in Chapter 5.Chapter 2This chapter offers an expanded summary of the literature published with regards to the fabrication methods, characterization, and properties of nanocrystalline materials in addition to a description of existing interconnect technology.2.1 Off-Chip unite TechnologiesChip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but they will often failed by mechanisms such as fatigue and creep. Furthermore, driven by the need for increase the system functionality and decrease the feature size, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that interconnections of integrated chip (IC) packages will have a I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2.The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) roadmap is a roadmap that semiconductor industry closely follows closely and its projects the need for several technology generations. The package must be capable of meeting these projections in order for it to be successful. This section reviews some of the current interconnect technology.Wire bonding 15 as shown in Figure 2.1, is largely considered as one of the most simple, cost-effective and flexible interconnect technology. The devices on the silicon die are (gold or aluminum) wire bonded to electrically connect from the chip to the wire bond pads on the periphery. However, the disadvantages of wire bonding are the slow rate, large pitch and long interconnect length and hence this will not be suitable for high I/O application.Instead of wires in the wire bonding, tape automated bonding (TAB) is an interconnect technology using a prefabricated perforated polyimide film, with copper leads between chip and substrate. The advantage of this technology is the high throughput and the high lead count. However, it is limited by the high initial costs for tooling.An chute(a) to peripheral interconnect te chnology is the area-array solution, as shown in Figure 2.3, that access the unused area by using the area under the chip. In area-array packaging, the chip has an array of solder bumps that are joined to a substrate. Under-fill is then fills the gap between the chip and substrate to enhance mechanical adhesion. This technology gives the highest packaging density methods and best electrical characteristics of all the avaiable interconnection technology. However, not only is its initial cost is high, it requires a very demanding technology to establish and operate.With the need for higher I/O density, compliant interconnects have been developed to satisfy the mechanical requirements of high performance micron sized interconnects. The basic idea is to reduce shear stress experienced by the interconnects through increasing their height or decreasing of its shear modulus (i.e. increases in their compliant) and hence the name compliant interconnects. Some of recent research in compliant interconnects include Tesseras Wide Area Vertical Expansion, Form Factors Wire on Wafer and Georgia Institute of Technologys Helix interconnects 17-19 as shown in Figure 2.4.Although compliant interconnects can solve the problem of mechanical reliability issue, they are done at the expense of the electrical performance. Since there is a need to reduce the packages parasitic through a decrease line delays, there is a need to minimize the electrical connection length in order to increase the system working frequency. Hence, compliant interconnect may not meet the high electrical frequency requirements of future devices.Figure 2.4 (a) Wide Area Vertical Expansion, (b) Wire on Wafer and (c) G-Helix 17-19Lead and lead-free solders typically fail mechanical when scaled down to less than to a pitch of 100 mm. Compliant interconnections, on the other hand, do not meet the high frequency electrical requirements. The Microsystems Packaging Research Center at Georgia institute of Technology ha d demonstrated the feasibility of using re-workable nanostructure interconnections. Aggarwal et al 20 had show that nanostructured nickel interconnections, through a Flip Chip test vehicle, was able to improve the mechanical reliability while maintaining the shortest electrical connection length. However, the main disadvantages of this method was the significant signal loss at high frequency signal of nanocrystalline nickel 21.As discussed above, nanostructure interconnects technology is the most promising interconnect technology to best meet the stringent mechanical and electrical requirement of next generation devices. However, there is a need of an alternate materials and a sensible choice of materials in this case would be nanocrystalline copper for its high strength material with superior electrical conductivity.Hence, it would be beneficial to use nanocrystalline-copper as material for the nanostructure interconnects. Due to the tendency for the grain to grow, there is a need to stabilize the grain growth in nanocrystalline copper before using it could be considered as a potential candidate for nanostructure interconnect.2.2 Nanocrystalline materialNanocrystalline materials are polycrystalline materials with an average grain size of less than 100 nm 22. Over the past decade , new nanocrystalline or nanostructured materials with key microstructural length scales on the order of a few tens of nanometers has been gaining a lot of interest in the material science research society.This is mainly due to its unique and superior properties, as compared to their microcrystalline counterparts which includes increased strength 22 and wear resistance 23. These unique properties are due to the large volume fraction of atoms at or near the grain boundaries. As a result, these materials have unique properties that are representative of both the grain boundary surface characteristics and the bulk.Recent advances in synthesis and processing methodology for producing nano crystalline materials such as inert gas condensation 24, mechanical milling 25, 26, electro-deposition 27, and severe plastic deformation 28 have made it possible to produce sufficient nanocrystalline materials for small scale application.2.2.1 SynthesisInert gas condensation, the first method used to synthesis bulk nanocrystalline 29, consists of evaporating a metal inside a high-vacuum chamber and then backfilling the chamber with inert gas 30. These evaporated metal atoms would then collide with the gas atoms, causing them to lose kinetic energy and condenses into powder of small nano-crystals. These powders are then compacted under high pressure and vacuum into nearly fully dense nanocrystalline solids.The grain size distribution obtained from this method is usually very narrow. However, the major draws back of this method are its high porosity levels and imperfection bonding. Grain coarsening also occurs due to the high temperature during the compaction stage 31.Mechanical mill ing consists of heavy cyclic deformation in powders until the final composition of the powders corresponds to a certain percentages of the respective initial constituents 25, 26. A wide grain size distribution is obtained by this method. This technique is a popular method to prepare nanocrystalline materials because of its applicability to any material and simplicity. However, their main drawback includes contamination and grain coarsening during the consolidation stage.Electro-deposition consists of using electrical current to reduce cations of a desired material from a electrolyte solution and coating a conductive object on the substrate. Electro-deposition has many advantages over processing techniques and this includes its applicability to a wide variety of materials, low initial capital investment requirements and porosity-free blameless products without a need for consolidation processing 27. Furthermore, Shen et al. 32 and Lu et al.33 had recently show that the right electro -deposition condition can produce a highly twinned structure which leads to enhanced ductility. The main drawback of this method is it is the difficulty to achieve high purity.Severe plastic deformation, such as high-pressure torsion, equal channel angular riddance (ECAE), continuous confined shear straining and accumulative roll-bonding, uses extreme plastic straining to produce nanocrystalline materials by mechanisms such as grain fragmentation, dynamic recovery, and geometric re-crystallization 34. It is the only technology that transformed conventional macro-grained metals directly into nanocrystalline materials without the need of potentially hazardous nano-sized powders. This is achieved by introducing very high shear deformations into the material under overlying hydrostatic pressure. Two of the most commonly used methods are high-pressure torsion and ECAE 35. In the study of the effect of ECAE on the microstructure of nanocrystalline copper, Dalla Torre et al 36 observed t hat the grains become more equi-axial and randomly orientation as the number of passes increases, as shown in Figure 2.5Figure 2.5 Microstructure of ECAE copper subjected to (a) 1 passes (b) 2 passes (c) 4 passes (d) 8 passes (e) 12 passes and (f) 16 passes 362.2.2 Mechanical Behavior of nanocrystalline materialsDue to the small grain size and high volume fraction of grain boundaries, nanocrystalline materials exhibit significantly different properties and behavior as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. The structure and mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline materials has been the subject of a lot of researchers interests both experimentally 37-43 and theoretically 44-50. This section reviews the principal mechanical properties and behavior of nanocrystalline materials.2.2.2.1 Strength and ductilityRecent studies of nanocrystalline metals have shown that there is a five to ten fold increases in the strength and hardness as compared to their microcrystalline state 7, 36, 37, 51, 52. This increase in the strength is due to the presence of grain boundaries impeding the nucleation and movement of dislocations.Since decreasing grain boundary size increases the number of barrier and the tote up of applied stress necessary to move a dislocation across a grain boundary, this resulted in a much higher yield strength. The inverse relationship between grain size and strength is characterized by the Hall-Petch relationship 53, 54 as shown in equation (2.1).Eq (2.1)In equation (2.1), s is the mechanical strength, k is a material constant and d is the average grain size. Hence, nanocrystalline materials are expected to exhibit higher strength as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 show the summary of hardness and yield strength from tensile test that are reported in the literature. Indeed, hardness and yield strength of copper with a grain size of 10nm (3GPa) can be one order higher than their microcrystalline counterpart. To the larger specimens.Derivation from Hall-Petch relationship begins as the grain size approaches 30nm where the stresses needed to activate the dislocation multiplication via Frank-Read sources within the grains are too high and the plastic deformation is instead accommodated by grain boundaries sliding and migration.12. Furthermore, as the grain size reduces, the volume fraction of the grain boundaries and the triple points increases.Material properties will be more representative of the grain boundary activity 64 and this will resulting the strength to be inversely proportional to grain size instead of square roots of the grain size as predicted by Hall Petch relation 65. Further reduction in the grain size will result in grain boundaries processes controlling the plastic deformation and reverse Hall-Petch effect, where the materials soften, will sequester place.Although sample defects had been account for the earlier experimental observation of reverse Hall-Petch effect24, S wygenhoven et al 66 and Schiotz et al 47, using molecular simulation, was able to showed that nanocrystalline copper had the highest strength (about 2.3GPa ) at a grain size of 8nm and 10-15nm respectively. Conrad et al 67 pointed out that below this critical grain size, the mechanisms shifted to grain boundary-mediated from dislocation-mediated plasticity and this causes the material to become dependent on strain rate, temperature, Taylor orientation factor and presence of the type of dislocation.The yield stress of nanocrystalline copper was highly sensitive to strain rate even though it is a fcc materials. The strain rate sensitivity, m, in equation 2.2 a engineering parameter which measured the dependency of the strain rate and Figure 2.8 shows a summary of m as a function of grain size for copper specimen in the literature 51, 68-70. Due to high localized dislocation activities at the grain boundaries which results in enhanced strain rate sensitivities in nanocrystalline materi als, m increases drastically when the grain size is below 0.1 mm as shown in Figure 2.8.(2.2)Room temperature strain rate sensitivity was found to dependent on dislocation activities and grain boundaries diffusion 52, 71, 72. Due to the negligible lattice diffusion at room temperature, the rate limiting process for microcrystalline copper was the gliding dislocation to cutting through forest dislocation, resulting in low strain rate sensitivities.However, due to the increasing presence of obstacles such as grain boundaries for nanocrystalline materials, the rate limiting process for smaller grain size was the interaction of dislocation and the grain boundaries, which is strain rate and temperature dependence. By considering the length scale of the dislocation and grain boundaries interaction, Cheng et al 52 proposed the following model for strain rate sensitivities. (2.3)z is the distance swept by the dislocation during activation, r is the dislocation density and a, a and b are the proportional factors. With this model, they will be able to predict higher strain rate sensitivities for nanocrystalline material produced by severe plastic deformation as compared to other technique. Since the twin boundaries in nanocrystalline or ultra fine grain copper served as a barriers for dislocation motion and nucleation which led to highly localized dislocations near the twin boundaries, the strain rate sensitivity of copper with high density of coherent twin boundaries was found to be higher than those without any twin boundaries 33. Lastly, the increase enhanced strain rate sensitivity in nanocrystalline copper had been credited for it increases in strength and ductility. For example, Valiev et al 60 credited the enhanced strain rate sensitivity of 0.16 for the high ductility.In addition to a strong dependency on the strain rate, strength in nanocrystalline materials was also highly dependent on the temperature. Wang et al 73 observed that the yield strength for ultra f ine grain copper with a grain size of 300nm increases from approximately 370MPa to 500MPa when the temperature reduces from room temperature to 77k. The authors attributed this increase in yield strength due to the absence of additional thermal deformation processes at 77k. This is consistent with Huang et al 74 observation where the temperature dependence of nanocrystalline copper with an increase in hardness of nanocrystalline copper with lowering the temperature is notedDuctility is another important characteristic of nanocrystalline materials. In microcrystalline materials, a reduction in grain size will increase the ductility due to the presence of grain boundaries acting as effective barriers to the propagation of micro-cracks75. However, nanocrystalline copper showed a lower strain to failure than that of their microcrystalline counterparts and this lacks in ductility was attributed to the presence of processing defects 76.Recent advanced in processing of nanocrystalline mate rials offer materials with more or less good ductility in additional to ultra-high strength. Lu et al 10 reported that nanocrystalline copper with minimal flaw produced via electro-deposition had an elongation to fracture of 30%. Furthermore, Youssef et al 77 observed a 15.5% elongation to failure for defect free nanocrystalline copper produced via mechanical milling. Hence, it was possible for nanocrystalline copper to be both strong and ductile if the processing artifacts are minimized.The failure are usually consists of dimples several time larger than their grain size was normally found on the failure morphology of nanocrystalline materials and Kumar et al 78 presented the following model for initiation and hence the eventual failure of nanocrystalline materials. Furthermore, the presence of shear region was found to be due to shear localization since the ratio of strain hardening rate to prevailing stress was usually small 79, 80.Figure 2.9 Schematic illustration of fracture i n nanocrystalline material postulated by Kumar et al 782.2.2.2 creepNanocrystalline materials are expected to creep during room temperature. This is because Due to the higher fraction of grain boundaries and triple junctions, self diffusivity of nanocrystalline material had been shown to increase by an order of three as compared to microcrystalline copper 81. Since creep behavior was dependent on grain size and diffusivity, with creep rate increases with an increase in diffusivity or a decrease in grain size, the creep temperature for nanocrystalline copper was known to be a small fraction of melting temperature (about 0.22 of its melting points). Furthermore, since creep had always been cited as one of the reason for grain size softening in nanocrystalline materials, creeps were other important mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials that had been gaining a lot of researchers attention.Due to the high volume fraction of grain boundaries and enhanced diffusivity rate

Autism :: Papers Disorders Childhood Autistic Essays

AutismAutism is not a disease, but a developmental disorder of brain function. People with classical autism show three types of symptoms impaired social interaction, problems with oral and nonverbal communication and imagination, and unusual or severely limited activities and interests. Symptoms of autism usually appear during the first three years of childhood and continue throughout feel. Although on that point is no cure, appropriate management may foster relatively normal development and reduce undesirable behaviors. People with autism have a normal life expectancy. Autism affects an estimated two to 10 of e truly 10,000 pot, depending on the diagnostic criteria used. Most estimates that include people with similar disorders are two to three times greater. Autism strikes males about four times as often as females, and has been found throughout the world in people of all racial and social backgrounds. Autism varies a great plentifulness in severity. The most sev ere cases are marked by extremely repetitive, unusual, self-injurious, and aggressive behavior. This behavior may persist over time and prove very difficult to change, posing a tremendous challenge to those who must live with, treat, and teach these individuals. The mildest forms of autism resemble a personality disorder associated with a perceived attainment disability. The most distinct feature of autism is impaired social interaction. Children with autism may fail to respond to their names and often avoid looking at some other people. much(prenominal)(prenominal) children often have difficulty interpreting tone of voice or facial expressions and do not respond to others emotions or watch other people?s faces for cues about appropriate behavior. They appear unaware of others feelings toward them and of the negative impact of their behavior on other people. Many children with autism engage in repetitive movements such as rocking and hair twirling, or in self-injurious behavior s uch as biting or head-banging. They also tend to start speaking later than other children and may refer to themselves by name instead of I, or me. Some speak in a sing-song voice about a narrow ramble on of favorite topics, with little regard for the interests of the person to whom they are speaking. People with autism often have abnormal responses to sounds, touch, or other sensory stimulation. Many show minify sensitivity to pain. They also may be extraordinarily sensitive to other sensations. These unusual sensitivities may contribute to behavioral symptoms such as resistance to macrocosm cuddled.